Martha Ballard Essays - Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, Womens History

Martha Ballard We as a society are fortunate. We have the luxury of advanced technology to include: computers, telephones, video teleconferencing equipment, cellular phones, beepers, and hospitals with the latest gadgets and gizmos. Our technology is available only because of documented historical accounts. Our idea of work is having to get in our vehicles and driving to our destination and sometimes sitting behind a desk all day to push paper; the worst any of us suffers is a traffic jam here or there or worse, a construction site. Imagine life in the late eighteenth century. People in this era had to deal with not only getting up at dawn to milk the cows, but toiling for hours on end with animals that refused to budge. Individuals in this era did not have the luxury of using the technological tools we have today. They could not pull out their cell phones if the mule decided to have a bad day or if they injured themselves on the job. Achieving prosperity was not easily done! during this century. The demands placed upon them, required that farmers and merchants work endlessly to provide for their families. Through our education, we have learned that farmers worked and played very hard. We are not however, taught in great detail the vital role a midwife played. Midwives had literally to be available at the drop of a hat to attend a birth. If she was not there, it could cause potential problems for the mother-to-be and the newborn. Martha Ballard, a woman that is not generally listed in history books, played a vital role in the latter part of the eighteenth century. She is a woman of great strength and character who goes above the call of duty in her chosen profession - that of a Midwife. Martha Ballard is a woman who has not only lived through the Revolution, but who has kept a diary detailing the gains and losses that we made in political, economic and social transformations during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries (Ulrich, 32)! . Mrs. Ballard's diary has been around for many years. Historians who know about the diary seldom know what to do with it (Ulrich, 8). Some feel that her diary is boring and filled with too many details of domestic chores and pastimes to be worthy of any great exploration (Baker, 14). "That Martha Ballard kept her diary is one small miracle; that her descendants saved it is another (Ulrich, 346)." This statement speaks volumes. How often have we come across documents our ancestors left behind and just threw them away? How often did we sit and examine those documents or analyze their meaning? Speculating on why Ballard kept the diary and why her family saved it, Ulrich highlights the documents' usefulness for historians (Mullaney, 102). Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, an Associate Professor of History (at the time of publication) at the University of New Hampshire in Durham, took the time to evaluate Martha Ballard's diary and connect the missing links in the role women played d! uring the early years of colonial America. Her ardent studies led her to believe that the diary was more than just the detailing of domestic duties it was describing a "lost substructure of eighteenth century life" - a decidedly female one (Baker, 14). Martha Ballard was more than a midwife. She was a historian, mortician, pharmacist, nurse, farmer, mother, and wife (Ulrich 40). Perhaps it was a sense of history or a craving for stability, perhaps only a practical need to keep birth records, that first motivated Martha to keep a diary. "Thee number of childn I have Extracted since I came to Kennebeck I find by written account & other Calculations to be 405," she wrote on December 31, 1791. (Ulrich,20) Martha was fifty years old when she began documenting her experiences crossing the Kennebec River and events of that era. She moved to this area at the tender of age nineteen when she married the loyal Tory and surveyor, Ephraim Ballard. She shows us a history of the female economy and how women were regarded. When reading diaries, one expects to find statements about the people the author meets, not in Martha's diary. One does not find malicious or crude remarks made by Martha about any of the people she helped. Even when her son wanted nothing to do with her, she still does not say an unkind word about him: Son

Hamlet Commentary Essays

Hamlet Commentary Essays Hamlet Commentary Paper Hamlet Commentary Paper Hamlet, written by William Shakespeare, is one of his greatest tragedy. It is the story of the prince of Denmark, Hamlet, whose father has been murdered by his uncle who now wears the crown. However in Act I, scene iii, there is an interesting contradiction presented by the author. This is the scene where Laertes tells Ophelia to be good while he leaves for college and gives her advice on life. Through this scene one may see three interesting aspects of the characters; the unwanted resemblance between Laertes and his father Polonius, the untrusting relation that they have and the power struggle that Ophelia represents. The way Shakespeare shows these three aspects of the characters in this scene is through the diction, irony , and the symbol that Ophelia represents. The reader may perceive those three eminent aspects of the characters through the diction used by Shakespeare in this scene. In the dialogue between Ophelia and Laertes at the beginning of the scene he uses specific words, and a sarcastic tone that makes the reader understand what type of men Laertes really is. When Ophelia says Do not as some ungracious pastors do,/ Show me the steep and thorny way to heaven,/ Whiles like a puffd and reckless libertine/ Himself the primrose path of dalliance treads,/ And recks not his own rede. ( Shakespeare. I, iii, ll 47-51) What the reader understands from that passage is that Laertes is a man that has a very festive and wild life when he is not at home, yet he tells his sister to be chaste, and lock herself up from men. : Because she says that she will take his advice if he himself applies it too when he is away, this show that Laertes is the opposite of what he advices his sister to be. This is one contradiction that Shakespeare uses to criticize the society of his time and the womens place in it. Yet it is even more ironic when one knows that Shakespeare wrote this play during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, was it to criticize her for being queen while it was a mans job? However the contradiction stands even stronger when Polonius, Ophelia and Laertes father, renew this advice later on in the scene. There again Shakespeares choice of words put forward even more this contradiction, and the unwanted resemblance between Polonius and Laertes. As it is seen when Polonius says: This above all: to thine own self be true,/ And it must follow as the night the day/ Thou canst not then be false to any man. (Shakespeare, I, iii, ll. 78-80) There Polonius is doing the same thing as Laertes did to Ophelia when he tells her to follow his advice. Polonius is telling Laertes to be true, while him himself is not a truthful person for he spies on Laertes later on in the play. This is proof of their unwanted resemblance. Irony is often used by Shakespeare in this scene. He uses it to make the reader ponder on the meaning of the actions and true personality of the characters in the scene. Again when Ophelia declares that she will accept the advice if Laertes does the same on his side, he changes the subject and tries to leave. However, his father, who enters at the same time, ironically gives him the same type of advice that Laertes just has given to Ophelia. Polonius tells Laertes how he should live his life when he goes away and Laertes just told Ophelia how to live her life when he is gone. This shows the resemblance between the father and the son. They both give advice before looking at themselves. The resemblance is further seen later in the play when Polonius sends a spy to see if his son is really studying or having fun. The reader can then draw the conclusion that when Polonius was young he too had a wild life, and knows what he was like at that age, therefore he expects the worse out of his son. However both of them seem to not accept the resemblances that they have, creating an untrusting and unloving relationship between them. It seems as though Ophelia is always in the middle, and always obeys to whatever she is told to do or say, which is again a reference of the roles of women in the society of those times. Ophelia in this scene is a very important character and she has a lot of power over the two men that she lives with. Shakespeare shows this strength through the answers that she gives to both her brother and father. She always obeys to everything that is asked of her. This is done to show the reader that in those times women had to do always as they were told, by men, for in the hierarchy of things they were placed after men and would never be heir to the familys riches. As well as they could dishonor the entire family if when she marries, she would not be chaste. Yet she represents a struggle for power between Laertes and Polonius. When Polonius finds out that Laertes has given Ophelia advice that a father should give, he feels that he has lost the power to control her, and therefore repeats the same thing that Laertes just said. Giving another reason to their bad relationship, since both of them want to be in control over Ophelia, there is always some competition between them at some level. This struggle between father and son furthermore emphasize Ophelias power, and importance to the scene. Because she says what he brother and father want to hear, such as I shall obey, my lord. (Shakespeare, I, iii, ll. 136), therefore leaving them both to think that they have power over her, while this is proven wrong at the end of the play when she commits suicide. This furthermore shows that she has control and power over her own life, showing another way Shakespeare defend womens position in society. This scene is of great importance to the play, for it is not only about a son leaving for college and a father giving him advice on life, and an obeying daughter; it is more Shakespeares way to give the reader a perspective on his society. One may also notice that the struggle between Laertes and Polonius is a symbol for a greater struggle; the one between Hamlet and the King. In both cases they want to have control over a women, whether it be Ophelia or Gertrude, Hamlets mom also known as the Queen. Polonius represent the King; who seems innocent to everyone, but to the audience, and Laertes represents the prince Hamlet. Hamlet is represented by Laertes in this scene because like Laertes he is trying to have control over a women that it is not for him to have control over, and they are both being spied on for their behavior by their fathers. Shakespeare could not have done away with this scene for it is crucial to the main plot, and to criticize his own society at the time the play was written. Bibliography: Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Ed. Gill, Roma Oxford School Shakespeare. Oxford University Press. New York. 1997.

Definition and Examples of Direct Address in English

Definition and Examples of Direct Address in English In English grammar  and rhetoric, direct address is a construction in which a speaker or writer communicates a message directly to another individual or group of individuals. The person who is addressed may be identified by name,  nickname, the pronoun you, or an expression  thats  either friendly or unfriendly.   Conventionally, the name of the individual whos addressed is set off by a comma or a pair of commas. Direct Address Examples and Observations Hey SpongeBob,  can I borrow the cheese bucket?(Patrick in SpongeBob SquarePants)Youve been given a gift, Peter. With great power, comes great responsibility.(Cliff Robertson as Ben Parker in Spider-Man 2, 2004)Smokey, my friend, you are entering a world of pain.(John Goodman as Walter Sobchak in The Big Lebowski, 1998Frankly, my dear, I dont give a damn!(Rhett Butlers final words to Scarlett OHara in Margaret Mitchells novel, Gone With the Wind, 1936Richard Vernon: My office is right across that hall. Any monkey business is ill-advised. Any questions?John Bender: Yeah, I have a question. Does Barry Manilow know that you raid his wardrobe?Richard Vernon: Youll get the answer to that question, Mr. Bender, next Saturday.(Paul Gleason and Judd Nelson in The Breakfast Club, 1985)Ilsa: Play it, Sam. Play As Time Goes By.Sam: Oh, I cant remember it, Miss Elsa. Im a little rusty on it.(Ingrid Bergman and Dooley Wilson in Casablanca, 1942Ilsa, Im no good at being noble, but it doesnt take much to see that the problems of three little people dont amount to a hill of beans in this crazy world. Someday youll understand that. Now, now . . .. Heres looking at you, kid.(Humphrey Bogart in Casablanca, 1942 And you, my father, there on the sad height,Curse, bless, me now with your fierce tears, I pray.Do not go gentle into that good night.Rage, rage against the dying of the light.(Dylan Thomas, Do not go gentle into that good night)You idiot, what  are you doing working in this poorhouse crammed with rotten guavas full of maggots, and you rotting just like them?(Reinaldo Arenas, The Palace of the White Skunks, trans. by  Andrew Hurley, 1991)Hey, you old bastard, Chick said. How you doin?  Chick came down the final two steps, pushed Tommy aside, grabbed Franciss hand, threw an arm around his shoulder, slapped his back. You old bastard,  Chick said. â€Å"Where you been?(William Kennedy, Very Old Bones,  1992) Direct Address and the Pronoun You It is clear that a  term of address is always  closely linked with the pronoun you,  which in itself has vocative qualities. One could say, in fact, that whenever pronominal you  is used in direct address, vocative you is implicitly present.  The two kinds of you  are inextricably bound together, though  in an utterance like You! What do you think youre doing! the first you is clearly vocative, where the others are pronominal.Pronominal and vocative you differ in their attitudinal marking. The former is neutral, the latter unfriendly.  Pronominal you also conforms to normal rules of syntax; vocative you does not need to do so. Vocative you,  finally, allows substitution. In You! What do you think youre doing! vocative you could be replaced by darling, John, you stupid fool, and innumerable other terms of address, all of which could be described as vocative-you variants. That point is significant because the  corollary of my statement that vocative you is always im plicitly present when pronominal you is used in  direct address, is  that pronominal you is always implicitly present when vocative you is used.(Leslie Dunkling, A Dictionary of Epithets and Terms of Address, 1990) The RhetoricalUse of My Friends in Direct Address -  My friends, [Senator] John McCain recently informed a crowd, we spent $3 million of your money to study the DNA of bears in Montana. . . .McCain . . . referred to my friends another 11 times. . . .Is this a doctrine of pre-emptive friendship immediately declaring crowds won over with an oratorical mission accomplished? Perhaps, but McCains friending is a strategy that hearkens back to classical rhetoric. Horaces call to amici performed a similar function in ancient Rome, and Tennysons 1833 poem Ulysses drew upon that tradition for the immortal lines: Come, my friends/ Tis not too late to seek a newer world. . . .But as a crowd bludgeon in modern political speechmaking, my friends can be laid at the feet of one man: William Jennings Bryan. His famed 1896 Cross of Gold speech at the Democratic National Convention invoked the phrase a mind-crushing 10 times.(Paul Collins, MFer. Salon.com, September 1, 2008)- Now, my friends, let me come to the great paramount issue.(William Jennin gs Bryan, Cross of Gold speech, July 9, 1896)- Words matter,  my friends.(Hillary Clinton, speaking in  Des Moines, Iowa, on August 10, 2016)- [W]e come to the  friendship of association, which is certainly the most common meaning of the word friend.  Some years ago the comedian Red Skelton impersonated a politician giving a campaign  speech. My friends he wheezed, and you are my friends, he quickly sputtered, and dont tell me youre not my friends, because nobodys going to tell me who my friends are. Obviously, the friends he was talking about were friends of association, acquaintances where there is little or no affection, or where people interact on some friendly basis.(John M. Reisman, Anatomy of Friendship, 1979) Visual Forms of Direct Address Gunther Kress and Theo van Leeuwen [in Reading Images, 1996]  note that  images in which the gaze  is directed at the viewer of the image create a visual form of direct address. It acknowledges the viewers explicitly, addressing them with a visual you.  Kress and  van Leeuwen call these images demand images because they demand that the viewer enters into some kind of imaginary relation with him or her. A classic example of the demand image is  the Uncle Sam recruiting poster, I Want YOU.  (Cara A. Finnegan, Studying Visual Modes of Public Address. The Handbook of Rhetoric and Public Address, ed. by  Shawn J. Parry-Giles and  J. Michael Hogan, 2010) Direct Address in the Media [In many] contexts,  for example,  television comedy or commercials, news and current affairs programmes, ​direct address is the accepted convention, although not everyone has the right to address the viewer directly. Anchorpersons and on-camera reporters  may look at the camera but interviewers may not. In chat shows, hosts may use direct address but guests may not. In other words, direct address is a privilege which the media profession has by and large reserved for itself.(Theo  van Leeuwen, Moving English: The Visual Language of Film. Redesigning English: New Texts, New Identities, ed. by  Sharon Goodman and David Graddol, 1996)   Ellen Gilchrists Address to Her WritingStudents Dear Students,If you are not writing well and happily, or if you feel your writing is forced, stop for a while and read or go out into the world and watch building projects or street-repair crews or get a job in a mall for Christmas or get into the car and drive to a city and look at art. Learn, learn, learn, be curious, and, if possible, uncritical. Everywhere men and women are doing wonderful things, marvelous things, interesting things. Write paragraphs about what you see and dont try to turn them into anything but praise and understanding. . . .Learn, learn, learn, read, read, read. I will be thinking about you and wishing you well every day.Ellen(Ellen Gilchrist, The Writing Life. University Press of Mississippi, 2005 The Lighter Side of Direct Address Cassio: Dost thou hear, mine honest friend?Clown: No, I hear not your honest friend. I hear you.(William Shakespeare, Othello, Act Three, scene 1)Son, you got a panty on your head.(Truck driver addressing H.I. McDunnough in Raising Arizona, 1987)

Nato and United Nation on the Conflict in Kosovo Essay

Nato and United Nation on the Conflict in Kosovo - Essay Example Kosovo is located in Southern Serbia and has a population of majority Albanians. Until 1989, the region was autonomous within Yugoslavia. Kosovo conflict refers to armed struggles in Kosovo province, Yugoslavia. From 1998 to 1999, there was an armed clashes caused by the Kosovo Liberation Army who wanted independence from the Yugoslav Military and Serbian police (Singh 2009). Between March and June 1999, NATO launched an air strikes and patrols on FR Yugoslavia while the KLA continued with their wars with Yugoslav Security Forces. This led to a large population displacement. NATO’s intervention in Kosovo was to stop the humanitarian crisis and restore peace stability in the region. Despite numerous challenges during 78 days of aerial strikes, more than 37,000 excursions occurred and 10,484 of the strike attacks happened without any fatalities. NATO’s objectives were to help for the achievement of a peaceful resolution to the crisis at hand and to promote security in nei ghboring nations especially in Albania and Macedonia. The involvement of NATO's was to settle the war in the most peaceful way. Their involvement, however, brought more problems than solutions. Albanians not only fought amongst each other but also NATO soldier (Kaplan 2010). The world's involvement in the conflict angered both sides of the conflict. Other objectives of NATO and the UN in Kosovo were; to stop to all military action and end repression, the withdrawal of the military and paramilitary forces from Kosovo, the setting up of international military in Kosovo, the unconditional return of all refugees and displaced persons and unstoppable access to them by humanitarian organizations and the establishment of a political agreement in conformity the Charter of the United Nations and international law. To show that NATO and UN did not act objectively in the conflict, in Kosovo, there were claims by Yugoslavia that NATO raids caused between 1,000 and 6000 civilian casualties. NATO 's secretary general, Lord Robertson, admitted after the conflict that the exact human lives claimed will never be known. Figures in Human Rights Watch reports estimate between 490 and 530 civilian demises, 80 to 140 resulting from cluster bombing. Kosovo attacks were deadly due to many confused refugee movements. On the ground, there was ethnic cleansing by the Serbians that led to 300,000 Kosovo Albanians fleeing to Albania and Macedonia with thousands more internally displaced in Kosovo. The United Nations reported that 850,000 people had fled their homes. The choice of targets to hit was highly controversial. The destruction of bridges at the Danube disrupted shipping on the river after the war causing economic challenges to countries along the river. The attack on industrial facilities damaged the economies of many local towns. These examples show that the organization did not act objectively in pursing their objectives. Moreover, the Serbian government and a numerous internati onal pressure groups accused NATO of carrying out war crimes during the war. For instance, the bombing of a Serbian television headquarters in Belgrade on April 1999 led to 16 deaths and numerous injuries. This was a deliberate attack on a civilian property hence constituting war crimes. The argument for NATO’

Impressionism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Impressionism - Essay Example It started as a movement in painting in France in the late 1860s and various artists such as Claude Monet, Camille Pissarro, Auguste Renoir, and Alfred Sisley are associated with the founding of this movement. The main features of impressionism as an art movement includes its emphasis on naturalistic landscape, subjective aspect of art, the topics of modern urban life and other commonplace subject matters, portrayal of light in its varying qualities, etc. Most essentially, this movement influenced and inspired trends in other areas such as sculpture, music, and literature. Specifically, impressionism influenced literature in various ways and helped in the growth of literature considerably. As Marlies Kronegger (1973) maintains, impressionism in literature built up its own style and techniques, although painting dominated all the other art forms during the period 1875-85. From the time it originated, it has been one of the prevailing literary styles existent in world literature today and the impressionist creations in various countries are derived from the same basic idea. (Kronegger, 33) Therefore, it is important to maintain that impressionism is one of the key literary terms today as it refers to the literary styles and techniques based on the general framework of impressionism as an art movement. This paper makes a comprehensive exploration of the term impressionism in order to define and explicate impressionism as an extremely valuable rhetorical tool in literature today.

Subcultural Theories of Youth Offending

Subcultural Theories of Youth Offending Introduction The essay will look at historical subcultural theories and explanations which play a role in explaining youth offending behaviour. It will in particular focus on deviant and radical subcultural theories including theories from Merton and Cohen and look at ways in which these theories are still prevalent amongst contemporary society and continue to be relevant. The essay will consist of an in dept critical analysis of the arguments put forward. Browne (2000) defines a subculture as a group of people who hold their own norms, culture, ethnicity, sexuality and values. Subcultures are smaller cultures held by a group of people within a larger culture in the society of which they belong to. Crime and deviance subcultural explanations of deviance advocate that those individuals who commit deviant behaviours share similar values which are to an extent differentiated from the main values of society The dissertation will critically review the literature. It is useful to do this as it helps to identify to the validity of the literature. In carrying out a critical literature review it aids in ensuring that new research into the topic avoids the errors found in some earlier research. Aims and objectives of the dissertation will be to critically analyse literature of historical theorists well known for their work associated with early deviant subcultural theories and to explore their relevance within contemporary society and demonstrate how historical ideas differ and/or are similar with ideas from society today. Other aims and objectives include carrying out a critical analysis on the work of these theorists and of sources which information has derived from. Literature Early Radical and Deviant subcultural theories Robert Merton put forward the theory of anomie/ strains which posed of great relevance to subcultural theories in the origins of deviant subcultural theorists. The theory suggest that deviance is a means used to achieve societys goals when they cannot be achieved through legitimate means due to factors such as socio economic factors, disadvantages in education and job prospects. This can then place strain upon these individuals as they want to achieve the goals but lack the opportunity for doing so by conventional means, (Cote, 2002). Great Britain Department for Work and Pensions (2004) in their sixth annual report state that many neighbourhoods have been subject to a spiral of decline. Areas with high unemployment and crime rates attain bad reputations resulting in businesses and employers to move out and which means there is high turnover and plenty of housing which is left empty posing opportunity for crime, vandalism and drug dealing. This supports Mertons view that deviance may in actual fact be a result of deprived areas posing disadvantages on individuals. This provides strong support for Mertons theory as it has been derived from a credible government organisations findings which have been providing data for the government for six years. Cohen (1955) criticised Mertons theory however and states that it does not account for crimes which are committed for no apparent reason. He fails to address why acts of deviance may take place where they fail to provide any monetary value. Cohen believes that acts of deviance take place out of fun not out of necessity. He also believes that crime does not take place on an individual level but as a collective problem for gang members who seek audiences in order to gain status and respect. In addition Cohen (1973) states that undesirable subcultures may be used as scapegoats for the government and law officials with the aim of creating moral panic so they can be viewed as fighting off these delinquents. There have been occasions when the governments claims have been questioned. BBC (2002) talk about the government placing blame for the growth of youth crime on incompetent and violent parents. Questions however have been raised as to whether the government is evading responsibility for the increase of crime levels to parents. This can however only be a matter of raising questions as to whether or not the government exercise the use of scapegoating. Baerveldt et al (2006) used criteria from work carried out by Goode and Yehuda to carry out an investigation to prove the hypothesis that a moral panic relating to youth crime has been prevalent since the 1990s in the Netherlands. They had found that most of the criteria identified by Good and Yehuda had been met however it was unclear that the underpinning of this moral panic was solely down to beurocratic processes. There were also flaws identified with the methodology or the research and Baerveld et al felt that future research should be more comparative looking at moral local panics or comparing panics with non-panics. This suggests that the finding from this study may not be as significant as the methodology may have been flawed. The work carried out by various sociologists in The Chicago School also contributed to the origins of deviant subcultural theories. Hopkins Burke (2008) speaks of the Sociologist Ernest Burges who put forward a theory of social disorganisation in 1928. The University of Chicago Centennial Catalogues (2010) state that Burgess played a central role in research which he contributed to the Chicago School of sociology. He observed that there was a high presence of criminal behaviour in the zones of transition. He put this down to the constant expansion of the business district into these areas resulting in the displacement of residents in this area. As this was one of the most desirable zones to live in, it was an area of attraction for immigrants who were too poor to live elsewhere. Burges claimed that this resulted in the weakening of family and communities due to social patterns. Shaw and McKay state that it is neighbourhood organisation which allowed or prevented offending behaviour. They noted that parents of youths from neighbourhoods which were wealthier fulfilled their childrens needs resulting in less crime in the areas. However they stated that in the zone of transition families were strained as a result of migration, poverty and rapid urban growth. Left with little support children and young people had no social constraints placed on them therefore were more likely to seek friends in the streets of the city in search for excitement. It can be argued however that poverty does not always lead to crime as there are people who want to break the cycle of poverty and change their lives around. BBC (2005) state that the cycle of poverty (As shown in Appendix 1) is where families or communities become trapped in poverty as a result of limited resources such as education, and finance. Breaking the cycle of poverty can be demonstrated by the self made millionaire Sir Alan Sugar; his early life began by being brought up in a council estate. It can be said that in some situations being bought up in poverty may have a positive effect on some people, Barke and OHare (1991). However sometimes it may be necessary to commit crimes in order to break thee cycle of poverty. Jenks (2005) stated that The Chicago School contributed to the discovery of new and different people. Subcultural studies by The Chicago School discovered new ways of life and different sides of cities. Albert Cohen is a well known theorist for contributing to early US deviant subculture theories throughout the 1940s and 1950s. Burke (2005) talks about Cohens deviant subculture theory, which suggests that it is the family position in the social structure which determines the childs actions in later life. Cohen states that juvenile delinquents were motivated to offend in order to achieve status, with their offending serving no real purpose. He questioned acts of deviance which were non finance motivated such as vandalism. He put this down to a term which he described as status frustration. He talks about mainly working class boys who are denied of any status achievement through education which ultimately leads to failings in education and future prospects. This according to Cohen caused frustration due to the lack of goal achievement and as a result they formed delinquent subcultures in order to create new achievable goals of their own. Moreover Cohen believes they take middle class values and rebel against them. This theory replaces the emphasis that Merton placed on financial incentive for delinquent behaviour with the focus being on the achievement of status. Cohen rightly shows how deviance is a rational response to life and indicates how it can be learnt through peer groups. Moreover Cohens theory offers a good explanation for non utilitarian crimes. Cloward and Ohlin in Downes and Rock (1988) disagree with Cohen and state that he overrated the role of school and education as the cause of delinquency. Short and Strodbeck (1974) however found little evidence to support Cohens claims of rejection towards middle class values of society within gangs Cohen has also been criticised for not accounting for female deviance and emphasising too much on males. Home Office (2003) looks at the summary of cautioning rates for non-monitoring offences by sex from 1992 to 2002 (see Appendix 2). This summary shows female cautioning to be relatively low, accounting for an average of 10% up until 1996. The rate then increases by a substantial amount between 1997 up until 1999 where at one point it is the same as males. From 2000 to 2002 there is a drop in the female figures. This shows that females do also account for offending behaviours and also shows how societys situation can change over the years and therefore one single theory which applies at one stage may not be sufficient enough to apply at later stages and therefore goes against the relevance of early deviant subcultural theories with regards to contemporary society. Albert Cohen is a well known for his work with relation to sociological explanations of theories of gangs; his theories have played an important role throughout the 1940s and 1950s. Cohens work has been of high relevance throughout the decades and continues to provide foundation for contemporary society, (Kinnear, 2009). The notion of the family position being a factor in causing deviant behaviour is also supported by Albert. K. Cohen who talks about breakdown of the family controls being a casualty of gang membership, (Cohen 1955). Albert Cohens work is supported by another well know researcher, Albert. K. Cohen and therefore provides more support for Albert Cohens claim that status achievement provides a source of encouragement for gang membership. ESRC Society Today (2009) state that members of organised gangs are generally males who are from broken families and lower class backgrounds. It is said that they may join gangs as they are more likely to gain moral support from them which encourages excuses of violence and criminal activities. They also spoke about the link between social class and crime in deprived neighbourhoods. This shows how the work of Cohen is still reflected in modern day society. Smith (2007) supports this by claiming that the majority of young offenders derive from broken homes and that gangs usually consist of boys who have never been a part of an intact family. This supports the view that broken homes contribute to delinquent behaviour. This provides support for the notion that it is males who are usually involved in gangs is still consistent with modern day ideologies. Macdonald (1995) also supports the view that it is generally males who join gangs and states that males gain identity from being in a gang whereas women tend to pursue independence. Muncie (2004) discusses Cohens work further and talks about the concept of status frustration which is similar to Mertons anomie/strain theory. It states that children who are lower class feel this notion of status frustration as they feel they can not meet the same criteria as the children from the middle class so they seek groups who share similar status frustration in which they fit in better. Muncies claim demonstrates that Cohens work is still relevant to modern day researchers. This view can be supported by the work of Gold and Mann (1972) who found that it was students who achieved lower grades with the most involvement in delinquent behaviour. They also reported that these students felt threatened by academic failure which lowered their self esteem and delinquency was a factor which was identified in order to raise esteem. This link can still be found in schools. Wales News (2009) states that only 28 percent of children who were entitled to receive free school meals received 5 GCSEs graded A* to C whilst 62% of other pupils received these grades. This shows the link between social deprivation and underachievement as children who receive free school meals are receiving school meals as a result of social deprivation. This is a neo-Marxist argument in the sense that it suggests that the most powerful culture in society (middle class children who do not get free school meals) will over rule the lower class in terms of education and future prospects (children who receive free school meals). According to the Marx class theory the bourgeoisie (the capital class) are economically the dominant class, as a result of their ownership and control of means of production. Neo Marxists also claimed the bourgeoisies were politically the ruling class. The proletariat (the working class) are property-less and must work for the bourgeoisies in order to sustain a living, (Messner and Krohn, 1990). Therefore it can be said that neo-Marxist views are consistent ideologies which are evident within everyday contemporary society. Social Justice Challenge (2007) state that more than 3 in 4 of young offenders have no educational qualifications. This supports the view that the majority of delinquents lack in education and this may be the underlying factor which influences delinquency. This shows that in actual fact modern day society does project similar notions as ones identified in the 90s and therefore the changing nature of contemporary society does not invalidate theories which were established in the past completely. Cloward and Ohlin like Cohen and Matza and Skye, were known for contributing towards early deviant subcultural theories. They build on the work of the strain disorganised perspectives in their theory of differential association theory and state that delinquency was most prevalent within lower class subcultures however they take different forms. They propose three different types of deviant subcultures and state that the ability for them to develop depends on the opportunities available to them to commit deviant crimes and also the area in which they derive from (Burke, 2008). This is however based on a subjective nature and therefore may not be sufficient enough to solely rely on this theory. It can be argued that the validity of this may be supported in the sense that a number of different theorists share similar notions which have derived from the work they have carried out. In addition their view is also supported by findings from a study conducted by Elliott and Ageton (1985) who studied National samples and found that lower class youths committed four times as many offences as middle class youths and one and a half times as many as working class youths. This supports the views that delinquency is more prevalent within the lower classes. The figures of these samples however may not show the true statistics as they may not account for the dark figures of crime, which Koffman (1996) defines as crimes which have not been reported such as white collar crimes. White collar crimes are crimes which are committed by people who are educated with a high social status. These crimes are hard to detect as they are often carried out by highly intelligent individuals and can therefore be less visible than blue collar crimes which are usually committed by the working class., (Sutherland, 1945). Examples of white collar crime can be demonstrated with the recent MPs expenses scandal in 2009 which went undetected for a long period of time. Tittle (1995) argues that the impact of social class on crime is a myth. Although there may be some truth on this claim, it is of a subjective nature which is presented without any supporting findings to back it up with. Thee first of the three deviant subcultures identified is by Cloward and Ohlin was criminal gangs which are believed to emerge in areas where there are conventional and non conventional codes of behaviour with the combination of lawful and unlawful businesses. BBC (2009) report that the criminal gangs in the UK are costing the country up to  £40bn a year and about 30,000 criminals in the UK are members of organised crime gangs. They have also been described as having derived from areas which hold similar traits to those described by early subcultural theories. The second of the identified deviant subcultures was the conflict or violent gang which develop from individuals from unstable backgrounds. It is defined as grouping which develops as a result of absence of stable criminal organisation and consists of members who seek status and reputation from committing violent crimes which are often carried out as random acts of crime. Guardian (2005) talks about criminal gangs from several neighbourhoods in London who call themselves Muslim Boys in order to pretend they have links with global terrorism and to gain status by causing fear within public domain. The third of these is the retreatist gang who are individuals who retreat to sex, drugs and crime as a result of failure in successfully perusing legitimate and illegitimate opportunities. National Youth Violence Prevention Resource Centre (2004), describes gangs which are involved in similar activities and hold traits similar to the retreatist gang which Cloward and Ohlin identified. This shows that all three gangs described by Cloward and Ohlin are still prevalent in modern day society and suggests that their research may not be in dated. However it is important to remember that although the types of gangs identified still exist there may be many more different types which have formed during the years. According to Sykes and Matza (1957) delinquents drift in and out of offending. They state that this delinquent behaviour fluctuates due to the neutralisation theory which attempts to explain how deviants try to justify their deviant behaviours by explaining to themselves and others their lack of guilt. They identified five different types of rationalisations, these are, denial of responsibility, denial of injury, the denial of the victim, the condemnation of condemners and the appeal to higher loyalties. This theory attempts to explain why delinquents drift in and out of delinquency as many delinquents feel or express remorse and guilt as a result of their criminal act. Another reason for this may be because delinquents frequently show respect for law abiding citizens. Sykes and Matzas (1957) techniques of neutralisation were introduced at a time in society where there were great concerns over juvenile delinquency, this meant they had a large sample of delinquents to study as there was a large outbreak of delinquency within society at this moment in time. Post modern deviant subcultural theories Post-modernism rejects the idea that theories or meta-narratives are sufficient enough to apply to modernity. Post modern theories state that it is aspects such as fashion, image and popular culture which are most relevant. It stressed that contemporary Britain consists of diverse and fragmented social groups from different backgrounds, (Hopkins-Burke and Sunly 1998). An example of post-modern youth culture is rap music. Hopkins-Burke and Sunley (2008) state that in the 1990s gangsta rap which is a form of black music that derived from the USA became a popular phenomenon in Britain. This style of music promoted problems to stem from the white culture and carried out criminal activity as a solution to this problem. This style of music is also popular within other ethnic groups. Osgerby (2004) stated that there was a rise in gangsta rap around the 1980s and 90s which provides support for Hopkins- Burke and Sunlys theory as modernity may bring about new trends, fashion and culture which influence delinquent behaviour. The songs of gangsta rappers such as Tupac Shakur and Notorious B.I.G were far from discreet in rapping about guns, violence and their hate for the police. Critics stated that their music could promote crime and violence within society as people looked up to them and may have seen it as a cool concept. This is also supported by the Guardian (2005) who talks about criminal gangs around London who communicate in slang, most of which had derived from black American rap music. Seifert (2009) also supports this by claiming that children absorb information like a sponge and that because of this they are likely to withdraw into a world of fantasy and misinterpretation of the violence and lifestyle portrayed in rap music. Sutherland (1937) warns of the dangers of preconditions for criminal behaviour such as motivation and attitudes which have to be learnt. This supports the views that the messages gangsta rap music promote may pose to be a detrimental threat according to Sutherlands views. Deviant subculture theories were revisited and revised by neo-Marxist sociologists and criminologists at the Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (BCCCS). They observed that deviant subcultures were a result of structural economic problems created by social change. The work by BCCCs was in some way similar to Merton and The Chicago School theories as they all suggest similar factors and concepts play a role in influencing deviant subcultures. The BCCCS focused on mainstream youth and delinquency and spectacular youth subcultures (Hopkins-Burke 2008) Hopkins Burke and Sunley (1988) state that early British subcultural theories focused on levels of economic activity and the structural class analysis playing a key role in explaining delinquency. A good example of this can be demonstrated by the Global credit crunch which we are currently experiencing. Telegraph (2008) stated that a leaked home office letter revealed that the credit crunch could lead to a crime wave in the form of more crime and more illegal immigration. This shows that when people are suffering from lack of finance, crime is more likely to be carried out as a result in order to sustain a living. Hopkins-Burke and Sunely (1998) looked closer into such mainstream deviant subcultures. They talked about work carried out by Paul Corrigan whose work was highly influenced by American subcultural theories. He carried out a study on males aged between 14 to 15 years old within two working class schools in Sunderland. This study observed the distribution of power within the school environment. He argues that school is a concept which has been forced on to working class children in which the system attempts to force middle class values upon them. This in turn led to the working class children rebelling. In terms of spectacular youth subcultures, this was subcultures which consisted of generally the working class young people who possessed a distinctive style which included dress, lifestyles, behaviour patterns and musical styles. The types of people which have been identified as falling into this category are individuals who are: Teddy Boys. Mods, Skinheads and Punks. SDFS (1999) talk about how clothing and style can be a trademark which is adopted by juvenile gangs. They state that gang members wear certain types of clothing, colours or having certain hairstyles and tattoos. This is a common phenomenon within modern society and is important to keep up with as it helps identify members within gangs and trace them back to the criminal activities they may have committed. Hopkins-Burke and Sunley (1998) state that early subcultural studies put forward the notion of young delinquents as being social climbers climbing up the social ladder from lower class to middle class. Cohen (1973) states however that creation does not justify behaviour. Later studies support the notion that subcultural theories continue to provide relevance in contemporary society. This is demonstrated by the work of Wilson. Wilson puts forward the underclass theory in which he states groups which are from isolated neighbourhoods acquire fewer legitimate opportunities available to them in the form of employment, education and job information networks. All these deprivations of opportunities helps raise the likelihood of people turning to deviant activities, (Wilson, 1991). Hopkins-burke and Sunley (1998) talk about William (1989) and Moore (1991) who refer to poverty as central to the underclass thesis which results in individuals attempting to gain economic through other means such as crime. Rodger Hopkins Burk has done a vast amount of research on post-modern subcultural theories, Hopkins Burke (2008) states that Rodger Hopkins Burke is Principle Lecturer for Criminology at Nottingham Trent University and therefore his work is of a credible nature. The importance of early subcultural theories has also been stressed by Bailey (2004) who states that during the past decades many theorists have contributed towards what we now consider as being contemporary criminology. In addition, Blackman (2005) has accused postmodernism of being reluctant to focus on social structure. However he states that post-modern theories offer useful critical insights but their theories lack substance and critical application to young peoples social, economic and cultural lives. Conclusion From this critical literature analysis, the conclusion can be drawn that no single theory can sufficiently explain all delinquent behaviours as it has been shown that there can be many factors which play a role in contributing towards the causes and motives of delinquency. Also it can be said that early subcultural theories are still of relevance to contemporary society, however solely cannot be used in explanations of delinquent behaviour in modern day society as it has been demonstrated by post modern theorists that other factors may influence delinquency as trends and fashion change with society. The literature review has sufficiently met all its aims and objectives which were to answer the question as to whether early deviant subcultural theories still prove to be relevant within contemporary society. Recent sources have been used to demonstrate similarities and differences apparent with regard to early deviant subcultural theories and modern day society. The literature review has also met aims of critically analysing research and sources. The literature review has looked into the history of subcultural theories which consisted of deviant and radical explanations of delinquency. Taylor et al (1975) defines radical delinquency as being a conservative theory of delinquency, which looks at theories put forward by theorists such as Marx. Hopkins Burke (2005) states that deviant subcultures share common notions which are that certain social groups have values and attitudes which influence delinquency. Many early subcultural theories have been put forward in order to explain deviant behaviour. Merton states that deviance occurs as a result of financial incentives whereas Cohen put forward the view that it is status frustration which motivates delinquency, other theorists such as Miller believe delinquency is related to class cultures and post modern theories state that it has got to do with certain trends prevalent within society at any given time such as influences from the Rap music culture. The analysis consists of work from The Chicago School who according to Colosi (2010) were the first major body to emerge during the 1920s to study youth offending. Theorist such as Albert Cohen, Cloward and Ohlin who were described by Cressey (1999) as pioneering theorists and praised for addressing both origin and transmissions of deviant subcultures. These theorists work has undoubtedly contributed vastly towards deviant subcultural theories in the past but also provided foundation for modern day theorists to base their work upon. This supports the view that early subcultural theories do provide relevance to modern day society and even if they may not be directly relevant they may pose relevance in the sense that their work can be further studied and built upon with relation to future research. Post-modern theories however raise the important issues of early deviant subcultural theories not being able to account for newer influences which derive as a result of changes in society. This has been shown by theorists such as Burke and Sunley (1988) who propose that delinquent behaviour may be influenced by aspects such as rap music, drugs and alcohol. Substance Abuse and Mental health Service Administration (2003) discuss findings from The National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA) (2000) which found a relationship between alcohol usage and emotional and behavioural problems in adolescents. These behavioural problems included delinquent and criminal behaviours. This supports the statement that other factors which have risen with societal changes play a role in influencing delinquent behaviour. Post modern studies help compare how society has changed throughout the years and are more up to date on modern day society and therefore has been able to provide newer insights into the causes and influences of deviant behaviours. According to Tanner (1996) early subcultural theories in the 1960s and 1970s were subjected to vast amount of criticisms. He claims that they exaggerated the cultural differences between delinquent and non delinquent individuals. These place focus upon delinquent individuals rejection towards middle class values. Siegel (2007) accuses early subcultural theories of being of a descriptive nature. He states that they sufficiently describe values and how they are transmitted in a normal process of socialisation but fail to address their origins. This is something Cohen has been accused of doing as he fails to address cultural differences. For instance his theory of delinquency identifies that it is the need for status which causes delinquent behaviour but he fails to address where this status frustration derives from, so his theory does not explain what has caused this need for status and what factors are involved in this process. He has also been criticised for placing too much emphasis on the male gender. As the analysis found female offending has increased over the years. This shows how he has ignored cultural differences as he fails to address the issues of women and crime. Another criticism Cohens has been criticised for is to having placed too much focus on working class crimes and middle class crimes have not said to been accounted for and neither have individual acts of crimes been considered. In addition it has also been argued by critics that there is too much emphasis and research focused upon delinquency within schools. They state that delinquency within schools is only short lived and episodic and therefore they cannot be generalised as being full time delinquents. As stated earlier Matza (1964) supports these criticisms by arguing that the majority of youths in schools who are less successful tend to only drift in and out of rebellious traits which have little influence upon later life, thus supporting the views that delinquency is episodic. Millers claims of deviance being an extension of working class culture in schools was also subject to criticisms. Subcultural theories were said to over ex

A Most Ambitious Experiment

Reading Log Title: A Most Ambitious Experiment Author: Mike Krath Length: 5 pages Plot – What is the short story about? Message? Hidden messages? It’s about a man named Robert who travels 20 years ahead in time to find out if he had invested his money well. He tells his wife he’ll be back in five minutes, but instead she waits for 20 years for his return. When he comes back he finds out his wife had spent all the money. He travels back in time to make sure she cannot do that again, and eventually kills her in order to check on his investment in the future and then return back five minutes before the murder. However, the future Robert kills the old Robert as soon as he arrives. Describe the setting (where does the story take place? ). Some short stories are written to highlight a special place (e. g. a city) or a special period of time (e. g. the time after the Second World War). The setting can also involve a limited group of people (social class, students etc. ). The story is set in the house of Robert and his wife. Robert goes down the basement every time he makes a time travel while his wife is waiting for him in their home, startling her when he shows up in their home 20 years later. Who is telling the story? (Who is the narrator? ) Perhaps the author has chosen a particular person to tell the story. Why? The main characters are Robert and his wife. The story is told from a third-person perspective and focus mostly on Robert’s wife as she’s is waiting for him, thinking he abandoned her. She even contacts the authorities to search for him, but after a few months the shut down the case and she legally declares him dead in order to get hold of the money he put away in a fund. What is the author’s message to the reader? Why was the story written? What is the overall meaning of the story? ) Has the story affected you? In what way(s)? I don’t know if there’s a real message behind this story. It describes much of the wife’s feelings towards Robert, as she first is worried that something had happened to him, then thinking he had abandoned her. Over the years she grows bitter and spiteful against him. Robert doesn’t seem to realize he has made her wait for 20 years and becomes angry when he finds out she spent the money. He’s also shown to take very big risks just to find out how the funds are working out: He isn’t sure of the outcome of the experiment and displays no hesitation when he kills his wife, thinking he will travel back in time before he could do that. However his plan backfires and he’s killed by his future self. Rating – give the short story a grade from 1-5 and motivate the grade, why was it good or bad? I’d give this story a rating of three. It isn’t badly written, but the story isn’t very engaging. The author could have described in more detail the feelings of the wife, or went more in-depth with Robert and the description of his character and motivations. I like the time-travelling theme and the ending, which is somewhat humorous although tragic. Vocabulary – pick five words from one or several short stories and explain them in English. 1. scowl – frown, bitter expression 2. muddled – â€Å"her mind was muddled†, i. e. â€Å"she was confused† 3. ambitious – desire for success and achievment 4. grubby – dirty or filthy 5. inquire – investigate, inspect