Subcultural Theories of Youth Offending

Subcultural Theories of Youth Offending Introduction The essay will look at historical subcultural theories and explanations which play a role in explaining youth offending behaviour. It will in particular focus on deviant and radical subcultural theories including theories from Merton and Cohen and look at ways in which these theories are still prevalent amongst contemporary society and continue to be relevant. The essay will consist of an in dept critical analysis of the arguments put forward. Browne (2000) defines a subculture as a group of people who hold their own norms, culture, ethnicity, sexuality and values. Subcultures are smaller cultures held by a group of people within a larger culture in the society of which they belong to. Crime and deviance subcultural explanations of deviance advocate that those individuals who commit deviant behaviours share similar values which are to an extent differentiated from the main values of society The dissertation will critically review the literature. It is useful to do this as it helps to identify to the validity of the literature. In carrying out a critical literature review it aids in ensuring that new research into the topic avoids the errors found in some earlier research. Aims and objectives of the dissertation will be to critically analyse literature of historical theorists well known for their work associated with early deviant subcultural theories and to explore their relevance within contemporary society and demonstrate how historical ideas differ and/or are similar with ideas from society today. Other aims and objectives include carrying out a critical analysis on the work of these theorists and of sources which information has derived from. Literature Early Radical and Deviant subcultural theories Robert Merton put forward the theory of anomie/ strains which posed of great relevance to subcultural theories in the origins of deviant subcultural theorists. The theory suggest that deviance is a means used to achieve societys goals when they cannot be achieved through legitimate means due to factors such as socio economic factors, disadvantages in education and job prospects. This can then place strain upon these individuals as they want to achieve the goals but lack the opportunity for doing so by conventional means, (Cote, 2002). Great Britain Department for Work and Pensions (2004) in their sixth annual report state that many neighbourhoods have been subject to a spiral of decline. Areas with high unemployment and crime rates attain bad reputations resulting in businesses and employers to move out and which means there is high turnover and plenty of housing which is left empty posing opportunity for crime, vandalism and drug dealing. This supports Mertons view that deviance may in actual fact be a result of deprived areas posing disadvantages on individuals. This provides strong support for Mertons theory as it has been derived from a credible government organisations findings which have been providing data for the government for six years. Cohen (1955) criticised Mertons theory however and states that it does not account for crimes which are committed for no apparent reason. He fails to address why acts of deviance may take place where they fail to provide any monetary value. Cohen believes that acts of deviance take place out of fun not out of necessity. He also believes that crime does not take place on an individual level but as a collective problem for gang members who seek audiences in order to gain status and respect. In addition Cohen (1973) states that undesirable subcultures may be used as scapegoats for the government and law officials with the aim of creating moral panic so they can be viewed as fighting off these delinquents. There have been occasions when the governments claims have been questioned. BBC (2002) talk about the government placing blame for the growth of youth crime on incompetent and violent parents. Questions however have been raised as to whether the government is evading responsibility for the increase of crime levels to parents. This can however only be a matter of raising questions as to whether or not the government exercise the use of scapegoating. Baerveldt et al (2006) used criteria from work carried out by Goode and Yehuda to carry out an investigation to prove the hypothesis that a moral panic relating to youth crime has been prevalent since the 1990s in the Netherlands. They had found that most of the criteria identified by Good and Yehuda had been met however it was unclear that the underpinning of this moral panic was solely down to beurocratic processes. There were also flaws identified with the methodology or the research and Baerveld et al felt that future research should be more comparative looking at moral local panics or comparing panics with non-panics. This suggests that the finding from this study may not be as significant as the methodology may have been flawed. The work carried out by various sociologists in The Chicago School also contributed to the origins of deviant subcultural theories. Hopkins Burke (2008) speaks of the Sociologist Ernest Burges who put forward a theory of social disorganisation in 1928. The University of Chicago Centennial Catalogues (2010) state that Burgess played a central role in research which he contributed to the Chicago School of sociology. He observed that there was a high presence of criminal behaviour in the zones of transition. He put this down to the constant expansion of the business district into these areas resulting in the displacement of residents in this area. As this was one of the most desirable zones to live in, it was an area of attraction for immigrants who were too poor to live elsewhere. Burges claimed that this resulted in the weakening of family and communities due to social patterns. Shaw and McKay state that it is neighbourhood organisation which allowed or prevented offending behaviour. They noted that parents of youths from neighbourhoods which were wealthier fulfilled their childrens needs resulting in less crime in the areas. However they stated that in the zone of transition families were strained as a result of migration, poverty and rapid urban growth. Left with little support children and young people had no social constraints placed on them therefore were more likely to seek friends in the streets of the city in search for excitement. It can be argued however that poverty does not always lead to crime as there are people who want to break the cycle of poverty and change their lives around. BBC (2005) state that the cycle of poverty (As shown in Appendix 1) is where families or communities become trapped in poverty as a result of limited resources such as education, and finance. Breaking the cycle of poverty can be demonstrated by the self made millionaire Sir Alan Sugar; his early life began by being brought up in a council estate. It can be said that in some situations being bought up in poverty may have a positive effect on some people, Barke and OHare (1991). However sometimes it may be necessary to commit crimes in order to break thee cycle of poverty. Jenks (2005) stated that The Chicago School contributed to the discovery of new and different people. Subcultural studies by The Chicago School discovered new ways of life and different sides of cities. Albert Cohen is a well known theorist for contributing to early US deviant subculture theories throughout the 1940s and 1950s. Burke (2005) talks about Cohens deviant subculture theory, which suggests that it is the family position in the social structure which determines the childs actions in later life. Cohen states that juvenile delinquents were motivated to offend in order to achieve status, with their offending serving no real purpose. He questioned acts of deviance which were non finance motivated such as vandalism. He put this down to a term which he described as status frustration. He talks about mainly working class boys who are denied of any status achievement through education which ultimately leads to failings in education and future prospects. This according to Cohen caused frustration due to the lack of goal achievement and as a result they formed delinquent subcultures in order to create new achievable goals of their own. Moreover Cohen believes they take middle class values and rebel against them. This theory replaces the emphasis that Merton placed on financial incentive for delinquent behaviour with the focus being on the achievement of status. Cohen rightly shows how deviance is a rational response to life and indicates how it can be learnt through peer groups. Moreover Cohens theory offers a good explanation for non utilitarian crimes. Cloward and Ohlin in Downes and Rock (1988) disagree with Cohen and state that he overrated the role of school and education as the cause of delinquency. Short and Strodbeck (1974) however found little evidence to support Cohens claims of rejection towards middle class values of society within gangs Cohen has also been criticised for not accounting for female deviance and emphasising too much on males. Home Office (2003) looks at the summary of cautioning rates for non-monitoring offences by sex from 1992 to 2002 (see Appendix 2). This summary shows female cautioning to be relatively low, accounting for an average of 10% up until 1996. The rate then increases by a substantial amount between 1997 up until 1999 where at one point it is the same as males. From 2000 to 2002 there is a drop in the female figures. This shows that females do also account for offending behaviours and also shows how societys situation can change over the years and therefore one single theory which applies at one stage may not be sufficient enough to apply at later stages and therefore goes against the relevance of early deviant subcultural theories with regards to contemporary society. Albert Cohen is a well known for his work with relation to sociological explanations of theories of gangs; his theories have played an important role throughout the 1940s and 1950s. Cohens work has been of high relevance throughout the decades and continues to provide foundation for contemporary society, (Kinnear, 2009). The notion of the family position being a factor in causing deviant behaviour is also supported by Albert. K. Cohen who talks about breakdown of the family controls being a casualty of gang membership, (Cohen 1955). Albert Cohens work is supported by another well know researcher, Albert. K. Cohen and therefore provides more support for Albert Cohens claim that status achievement provides a source of encouragement for gang membership. ESRC Society Today (2009) state that members of organised gangs are generally males who are from broken families and lower class backgrounds. It is said that they may join gangs as they are more likely to gain moral support from them which encourages excuses of violence and criminal activities. They also spoke about the link between social class and crime in deprived neighbourhoods. This shows how the work of Cohen is still reflected in modern day society. Smith (2007) supports this by claiming that the majority of young offenders derive from broken homes and that gangs usually consist of boys who have never been a part of an intact family. This supports the view that broken homes contribute to delinquent behaviour. This provides support for the notion that it is males who are usually involved in gangs is still consistent with modern day ideologies. Macdonald (1995) also supports the view that it is generally males who join gangs and states that males gain identity from being in a gang whereas women tend to pursue independence. Muncie (2004) discusses Cohens work further and talks about the concept of status frustration which is similar to Mertons anomie/strain theory. It states that children who are lower class feel this notion of status frustration as they feel they can not meet the same criteria as the children from the middle class so they seek groups who share similar status frustration in which they fit in better. Muncies claim demonstrates that Cohens work is still relevant to modern day researchers. This view can be supported by the work of Gold and Mann (1972) who found that it was students who achieved lower grades with the most involvement in delinquent behaviour. They also reported that these students felt threatened by academic failure which lowered their self esteem and delinquency was a factor which was identified in order to raise esteem. This link can still be found in schools. Wales News (2009) states that only 28 percent of children who were entitled to receive free school meals received 5 GCSEs graded A* to C whilst 62% of other pupils received these grades. This shows the link between social deprivation and underachievement as children who receive free school meals are receiving school meals as a result of social deprivation. This is a neo-Marxist argument in the sense that it suggests that the most powerful culture in society (middle class children who do not get free school meals) will over rule the lower class in terms of education and future prospects (children who receive free school meals). According to the Marx class theory the bourgeoisie (the capital class) are economically the dominant class, as a result of their ownership and control of means of production. Neo Marxists also claimed the bourgeoisies were politically the ruling class. The proletariat (the working class) are property-less and must work for the bourgeoisies in order to sustain a living, (Messner and Krohn, 1990). Therefore it can be said that neo-Marxist views are consistent ideologies which are evident within everyday contemporary society. Social Justice Challenge (2007) state that more than 3 in 4 of young offenders have no educational qualifications. This supports the view that the majority of delinquents lack in education and this may be the underlying factor which influences delinquency. This shows that in actual fact modern day society does project similar notions as ones identified in the 90s and therefore the changing nature of contemporary society does not invalidate theories which were established in the past completely. Cloward and Ohlin like Cohen and Matza and Skye, were known for contributing towards early deviant subcultural theories. They build on the work of the strain disorganised perspectives in their theory of differential association theory and state that delinquency was most prevalent within lower class subcultures however they take different forms. They propose three different types of deviant subcultures and state that the ability for them to develop depends on the opportunities available to them to commit deviant crimes and also the area in which they derive from (Burke, 2008). This is however based on a subjective nature and therefore may not be sufficient enough to solely rely on this theory. It can be argued that the validity of this may be supported in the sense that a number of different theorists share similar notions which have derived from the work they have carried out. In addition their view is also supported by findings from a study conducted by Elliott and Ageton (1985) who studied National samples and found that lower class youths committed four times as many offences as middle class youths and one and a half times as many as working class youths. This supports the views that delinquency is more prevalent within the lower classes. The figures of these samples however may not show the true statistics as they may not account for the dark figures of crime, which Koffman (1996) defines as crimes which have not been reported such as white collar crimes. White collar crimes are crimes which are committed by people who are educated with a high social status. These crimes are hard to detect as they are often carried out by highly intelligent individuals and can therefore be less visible than blue collar crimes which are usually committed by the working class., (Sutherland, 1945). Examples of white collar crime can be demonstrated with the recent MPs expenses scandal in 2009 which went undetected for a long period of time. Tittle (1995) argues that the impact of social class on crime is a myth. Although there may be some truth on this claim, it is of a subjective nature which is presented without any supporting findings to back it up with. Thee first of the three deviant subcultures identified is by Cloward and Ohlin was criminal gangs which are believed to emerge in areas where there are conventional and non conventional codes of behaviour with the combination of lawful and unlawful businesses. BBC (2009) report that the criminal gangs in the UK are costing the country up to  £40bn a year and about 30,000 criminals in the UK are members of organised crime gangs. They have also been described as having derived from areas which hold similar traits to those described by early subcultural theories. The second of the identified deviant subcultures was the conflict or violent gang which develop from individuals from unstable backgrounds. It is defined as grouping which develops as a result of absence of stable criminal organisation and consists of members who seek status and reputation from committing violent crimes which are often carried out as random acts of crime. Guardian (2005) talks about criminal gangs from several neighbourhoods in London who call themselves Muslim Boys in order to pretend they have links with global terrorism and to gain status by causing fear within public domain. The third of these is the retreatist gang who are individuals who retreat to sex, drugs and crime as a result of failure in successfully perusing legitimate and illegitimate opportunities. National Youth Violence Prevention Resource Centre (2004), describes gangs which are involved in similar activities and hold traits similar to the retreatist gang which Cloward and Ohlin identified. This shows that all three gangs described by Cloward and Ohlin are still prevalent in modern day society and suggests that their research may not be in dated. However it is important to remember that although the types of gangs identified still exist there may be many more different types which have formed during the years. According to Sykes and Matza (1957) delinquents drift in and out of offending. They state that this delinquent behaviour fluctuates due to the neutralisation theory which attempts to explain how deviants try to justify their deviant behaviours by explaining to themselves and others their lack of guilt. They identified five different types of rationalisations, these are, denial of responsibility, denial of injury, the denial of the victim, the condemnation of condemners and the appeal to higher loyalties. This theory attempts to explain why delinquents drift in and out of delinquency as many delinquents feel or express remorse and guilt as a result of their criminal act. Another reason for this may be because delinquents frequently show respect for law abiding citizens. Sykes and Matzas (1957) techniques of neutralisation were introduced at a time in society where there were great concerns over juvenile delinquency, this meant they had a large sample of delinquents to study as there was a large outbreak of delinquency within society at this moment in time. Post modern deviant subcultural theories Post-modernism rejects the idea that theories or meta-narratives are sufficient enough to apply to modernity. Post modern theories state that it is aspects such as fashion, image and popular culture which are most relevant. It stressed that contemporary Britain consists of diverse and fragmented social groups from different backgrounds, (Hopkins-Burke and Sunly 1998). An example of post-modern youth culture is rap music. Hopkins-Burke and Sunley (2008) state that in the 1990s gangsta rap which is a form of black music that derived from the USA became a popular phenomenon in Britain. This style of music promoted problems to stem from the white culture and carried out criminal activity as a solution to this problem. This style of music is also popular within other ethnic groups. Osgerby (2004) stated that there was a rise in gangsta rap around the 1980s and 90s which provides support for Hopkins- Burke and Sunlys theory as modernity may bring about new trends, fashion and culture which influence delinquent behaviour. The songs of gangsta rappers such as Tupac Shakur and Notorious B.I.G were far from discreet in rapping about guns, violence and their hate for the police. Critics stated that their music could promote crime and violence within society as people looked up to them and may have seen it as a cool concept. This is also supported by the Guardian (2005) who talks about criminal gangs around London who communicate in slang, most of which had derived from black American rap music. Seifert (2009) also supports this by claiming that children absorb information like a sponge and that because of this they are likely to withdraw into a world of fantasy and misinterpretation of the violence and lifestyle portrayed in rap music. Sutherland (1937) warns of the dangers of preconditions for criminal behaviour such as motivation and attitudes which have to be learnt. This supports the views that the messages gangsta rap music promote may pose to be a detrimental threat according to Sutherlands views. Deviant subculture theories were revisited and revised by neo-Marxist sociologists and criminologists at the Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (BCCCS). They observed that deviant subcultures were a result of structural economic problems created by social change. The work by BCCCs was in some way similar to Merton and The Chicago School theories as they all suggest similar factors and concepts play a role in influencing deviant subcultures. The BCCCS focused on mainstream youth and delinquency and spectacular youth subcultures (Hopkins-Burke 2008) Hopkins Burke and Sunley (1988) state that early British subcultural theories focused on levels of economic activity and the structural class analysis playing a key role in explaining delinquency. A good example of this can be demonstrated by the Global credit crunch which we are currently experiencing. Telegraph (2008) stated that a leaked home office letter revealed that the credit crunch could lead to a crime wave in the form of more crime and more illegal immigration. This shows that when people are suffering from lack of finance, crime is more likely to be carried out as a result in order to sustain a living. Hopkins-Burke and Sunely (1998) looked closer into such mainstream deviant subcultures. They talked about work carried out by Paul Corrigan whose work was highly influenced by American subcultural theories. He carried out a study on males aged between 14 to 15 years old within two working class schools in Sunderland. This study observed the distribution of power within the school environment. He argues that school is a concept which has been forced on to working class children in which the system attempts to force middle class values upon them. This in turn led to the working class children rebelling. In terms of spectacular youth subcultures, this was subcultures which consisted of generally the working class young people who possessed a distinctive style which included dress, lifestyles, behaviour patterns and musical styles. The types of people which have been identified as falling into this category are individuals who are: Teddy Boys. Mods, Skinheads and Punks. SDFS (1999) talk about how clothing and style can be a trademark which is adopted by juvenile gangs. They state that gang members wear certain types of clothing, colours or having certain hairstyles and tattoos. This is a common phenomenon within modern society and is important to keep up with as it helps identify members within gangs and trace them back to the criminal activities they may have committed. Hopkins-Burke and Sunley (1998) state that early subcultural studies put forward the notion of young delinquents as being social climbers climbing up the social ladder from lower class to middle class. Cohen (1973) states however that creation does not justify behaviour. Later studies support the notion that subcultural theories continue to provide relevance in contemporary society. This is demonstrated by the work of Wilson. Wilson puts forward the underclass theory in which he states groups which are from isolated neighbourhoods acquire fewer legitimate opportunities available to them in the form of employment, education and job information networks. All these deprivations of opportunities helps raise the likelihood of people turning to deviant activities, (Wilson, 1991). Hopkins-burke and Sunley (1998) talk about William (1989) and Moore (1991) who refer to poverty as central to the underclass thesis which results in individuals attempting to gain economic through other means such as crime. Rodger Hopkins Burk has done a vast amount of research on post-modern subcultural theories, Hopkins Burke (2008) states that Rodger Hopkins Burke is Principle Lecturer for Criminology at Nottingham Trent University and therefore his work is of a credible nature. The importance of early subcultural theories has also been stressed by Bailey (2004) who states that during the past decades many theorists have contributed towards what we now consider as being contemporary criminology. In addition, Blackman (2005) has accused postmodernism of being reluctant to focus on social structure. However he states that post-modern theories offer useful critical insights but their theories lack substance and critical application to young peoples social, economic and cultural lives. Conclusion From this critical literature analysis, the conclusion can be drawn that no single theory can sufficiently explain all delinquent behaviours as it has been shown that there can be many factors which play a role in contributing towards the causes and motives of delinquency. Also it can be said that early subcultural theories are still of relevance to contemporary society, however solely cannot be used in explanations of delinquent behaviour in modern day society as it has been demonstrated by post modern theorists that other factors may influence delinquency as trends and fashion change with society. The literature review has sufficiently met all its aims and objectives which were to answer the question as to whether early deviant subcultural theories still prove to be relevant within contemporary society. Recent sources have been used to demonstrate similarities and differences apparent with regard to early deviant subcultural theories and modern day society. The literature review has also met aims of critically analysing research and sources. The literature review has looked into the history of subcultural theories which consisted of deviant and radical explanations of delinquency. Taylor et al (1975) defines radical delinquency as being a conservative theory of delinquency, which looks at theories put forward by theorists such as Marx. Hopkins Burke (2005) states that deviant subcultures share common notions which are that certain social groups have values and attitudes which influence delinquency. Many early subcultural theories have been put forward in order to explain deviant behaviour. Merton states that deviance occurs as a result of financial incentives whereas Cohen put forward the view that it is status frustration which motivates delinquency, other theorists such as Miller believe delinquency is related to class cultures and post modern theories state that it has got to do with certain trends prevalent within society at any given time such as influences from the Rap music culture. The analysis consists of work from The Chicago School who according to Colosi (2010) were the first major body to emerge during the 1920s to study youth offending. Theorist such as Albert Cohen, Cloward and Ohlin who were described by Cressey (1999) as pioneering theorists and praised for addressing both origin and transmissions of deviant subcultures. These theorists work has undoubtedly contributed vastly towards deviant subcultural theories in the past but also provided foundation for modern day theorists to base their work upon. This supports the view that early subcultural theories do provide relevance to modern day society and even if they may not be directly relevant they may pose relevance in the sense that their work can be further studied and built upon with relation to future research. Post-modern theories however raise the important issues of early deviant subcultural theories not being able to account for newer influences which derive as a result of changes in society. This has been shown by theorists such as Burke and Sunley (1988) who propose that delinquent behaviour may be influenced by aspects such as rap music, drugs and alcohol. Substance Abuse and Mental health Service Administration (2003) discuss findings from The National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA) (2000) which found a relationship between alcohol usage and emotional and behavioural problems in adolescents. These behavioural problems included delinquent and criminal behaviours. This supports the statement that other factors which have risen with societal changes play a role in influencing delinquent behaviour. Post modern studies help compare how society has changed throughout the years and are more up to date on modern day society and therefore has been able to provide newer insights into the causes and influences of deviant behaviours. According to Tanner (1996) early subcultural theories in the 1960s and 1970s were subjected to vast amount of criticisms. He claims that they exaggerated the cultural differences between delinquent and non delinquent individuals. These place focus upon delinquent individuals rejection towards middle class values. Siegel (2007) accuses early subcultural theories of being of a descriptive nature. He states that they sufficiently describe values and how they are transmitted in a normal process of socialisation but fail to address their origins. This is something Cohen has been accused of doing as he fails to address cultural differences. For instance his theory of delinquency identifies that it is the need for status which causes delinquent behaviour but he fails to address where this status frustration derives from, so his theory does not explain what has caused this need for status and what factors are involved in this process. He has also been criticised for placing too much emphasis on the male gender. As the analysis found female offending has increased over the years. This shows how he has ignored cultural differences as he fails to address the issues of women and crime. Another criticism Cohens has been criticised for is to having placed too much focus on working class crimes and middle class crimes have not said to been accounted for and neither have individual acts of crimes been considered. In addition it has also been argued by critics that there is too much emphasis and research focused upon delinquency within schools. They state that delinquency within schools is only short lived and episodic and therefore they cannot be generalised as being full time delinquents. As stated earlier Matza (1964) supports these criticisms by arguing that the majority of youths in schools who are less successful tend to only drift in and out of rebellious traits which have little influence upon later life, thus supporting the views that delinquency is episodic. Millers claims of deviance being an extension of working class culture in schools was also subject to criticisms. Subcultural theories were said to over ex

A Most Ambitious Experiment

Reading Log Title: A Most Ambitious Experiment Author: Mike Krath Length: 5 pages Plot – What is the short story about? Message? Hidden messages? It’s about a man named Robert who travels 20 years ahead in time to find out if he had invested his money well. He tells his wife he’ll be back in five minutes, but instead she waits for 20 years for his return. When he comes back he finds out his wife had spent all the money. He travels back in time to make sure she cannot do that again, and eventually kills her in order to check on his investment in the future and then return back five minutes before the murder. However, the future Robert kills the old Robert as soon as he arrives. Describe the setting (where does the story take place? ). Some short stories are written to highlight a special place (e. g. a city) or a special period of time (e. g. the time after the Second World War). The setting can also involve a limited group of people (social class, students etc. ). The story is set in the house of Robert and his wife. Robert goes down the basement every time he makes a time travel while his wife is waiting for him in their home, startling her when he shows up in their home 20 years later. Who is telling the story? (Who is the narrator? ) Perhaps the author has chosen a particular person to tell the story. Why? The main characters are Robert and his wife. The story is told from a third-person perspective and focus mostly on Robert’s wife as she’s is waiting for him, thinking he abandoned her. She even contacts the authorities to search for him, but after a few months the shut down the case and she legally declares him dead in order to get hold of the money he put away in a fund. What is the author’s message to the reader? Why was the story written? What is the overall meaning of the story? ) Has the story affected you? In what way(s)? I don’t know if there’s a real message behind this story. It describes much of the wife’s feelings towards Robert, as she first is worried that something had happened to him, then thinking he had abandoned her. Over the years she grows bitter and spiteful against him. Robert doesn’t seem to realize he has made her wait for 20 years and becomes angry when he finds out she spent the money. He’s also shown to take very big risks just to find out how the funds are working out: He isn’t sure of the outcome of the experiment and displays no hesitation when he kills his wife, thinking he will travel back in time before he could do that. However his plan backfires and he’s killed by his future self. Rating – give the short story a grade from 1-5 and motivate the grade, why was it good or bad? I’d give this story a rating of three. It isn’t badly written, but the story isn’t very engaging. The author could have described in more detail the feelings of the wife, or went more in-depth with Robert and the description of his character and motivations. I like the time-travelling theme and the ending, which is somewhat humorous although tragic. Vocabulary – pick five words from one or several short stories and explain them in English. 1. scowl – frown, bitter expression 2. muddled – â€Å"her mind was muddled†, i. e. â€Å"she was confused† 3. ambitious – desire for success and achievment 4. grubby – dirty or filthy 5. inquire – investigate, inspect

Case Study The Cold War - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 3 Words: 921 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2019/10/10 Did you like this example? Introduction The Cold War is a perfect example of the quest for dominance between the United States of America and the Soviet Union present day Russia. As alluded to by George Orwell, a British Author, living under the prospect of a nuclear war was dubbed ‘a peace that is no peace.’ The term, Cold War, would come to characterize the political, social, and monetary history of the second phase of the twentieth century. More than simply a military standoff, the Cold War offered a steady global framework manufactured by the worlds rising two superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union that kept going over four decades. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Case Study: The Cold War" essay for you Create order This framework shaped very quickly taking after World War II when the United States and the Soviet Union encapsulated the contrasts between an entrepreneur and a comrade world. The contention that emerged between these two in a general brought forth advancement of new weapons frameworks, including the Minuteman I and II. The Cold War Antics There is a sense of agreement that the Soviet Union was among the countries during this period to enforce totalitarian systems; the systems that undermined the will of the common man and which undermined the very basic principles of democracy. The common threat of the Soviets and Americans, prompting the Cold War, created after World War II as the two sides contended over various geographic and political zones of conflict. In a few showdowns and conciliatory circumstances, American policymakers specifically learned imperative lessons, including that the Soviet Union was no longer a partner, that Moscow proposed to extend the physical domain of socialism, and that the Soviets must be prevented by force and nothing else. The United States of America was for the idea that the people need to have the mandate and authority to choose their own governments and determine the kind of leadership, they are under. This was among the many principles of western democracy employed by the United States of America and Britain. This was a clear indication that the West were for capitalistic societies rather than communist ones, as it were with the Soviet Union. The main basis of peace in Europe was fronted to be, the unity within the countries herein. Communist Russia was a threat to world stability and an actor waiting to reap the benefits of war and expand its own dominance. The pact between the United States of America, Britain and other Common Wealth countries was a front that would destroy any formidable enemy. The antics by the United States of America and Britain were mainly a side show, which was based on the idea that no party was willing to allow Russia any dominance. There was an agreement that the Soviets had arrangements that accepted a western hostility vibe and that their expansionism was inevitable. The proposal was that Moscow would just be deflected by intense restriction, be it political or military. The United States sense of duty regarding Western Europes safeguarding, exemplified by endeavours amid the Berlin Blockade, prompted the foundation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in April 1949. NATO accommodated an aggregate guard of its individuals, as the associations sanction guaranteed that an assault on one would be viewed as an assault on all. NATO spoke to the United States sense of duty regarding its European partners and would turn into a vital key to containing the Soviet Union in Europe. From the very beginning, Russia intensely contradicted NATOs eastbound extension, keeping up that it was maintained against Russia and its interests. To counter the rule that nations could pick their partnerships, Russia regularly alluded to the standard of indissoluble nature of security, the security of any given state ought not to be sought after to the detriment of security of other states.   Moscow has additionally attempted to hamper EU augmentation. Because of focal European states, Russia attempted to set up a few conditions and get some level of monetary pay. Russia has additionally tried to wreck EU Association Agreements with individual post-Soviet states. It was effective in countries such as Armenia, however unsuccessful somewhere else. The root of certain reflexes of Russian vital speculation can without much of a stretch be traced. In our eyes, these proceeds, in numerous perspectives, to impact key choices. Despite its gathered reasonability, key deduction keeps on being overwhelmed by the inheritance of the past, which implies an arrival to the Soviet convictions in the encounter of the two human advancements, the chase for adversaries and the counter American talk that ensured the inner soundness of the administration. Regardless of the possibility that purported liberal sentiments are beginning to be listened to, Russian technique is commanded by conservatism, the Eurasian idea and the possibility that recovering previous brilliance is fundamental. Although some accept to watch the failure of Russia to begin living in the 21st century, a vast dominant part of the elites and the Russian individuals welcome this. Conclusion Russia’s pragmatic and strategic policy towards its western counterparts has very much remained the same. The Russians have maintained a position of not taking any intimidation whatsoever. This has ensured that it embraces counteractive strategies to supplement its own quest for spatial dominance. However, some countries such as Ukraine have ceased to support Russia and have embraced the West. In some quarters, it has been deemed crucial that the strengthening of NATO especially so, in the Eastern sphere, is crucial in taming Russia and ensure strategic co-operation between the United States of America and the European Union against mighty Russia.

The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde Essay - 523 Words

English Questions on The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde 1. What is the main plot of the book The strange case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde is a book based on a man with two different personality’s and two physical appearances, his own as well as a strange man who goes by the name of Mr Hyde a mysterious dark individual who lurks in the dark and pounces once spotting his prey weak an vulnerable. The character of Mr Hyde was created after Dr Jekyll created a special chemical solution which he drank, subsequently transforming himself into this different creature. Dr Jekyll ever since has been fighting with this other side, this evil vicious man in order to bring peace among him self and others, but the evil Mr Hyde is forever†¦show more content†¦But during the course of the book Dr Jekyll becomes very edgy and his behaviour begins to deteriorate. Dr Jekyll in the book wrote his will stating that Mr Hyde was eligible to every thing Jekyll had. But Dr Jekylls oldest friend Utterson began to feel like he should be the one to choose in his will as they had been friends for a long time, so he tried to convince Jekyll to change his will. Another reason he felt this needed to happen was because he had never heard of Mr Hyde and began to think the reason Jekyll had put Hyde in his will, was all part of a criminal act Hyde was playing in order to gain all of Jekyll’s money and possession’s by murdering Dr Jekyll. Mr Hyde on the other hand has been described as small (dwarfish) and rather young. People react in a scared horrified many when they see Mr Hyde, this is not because of one certain thing, it’s as if his soul releases fear into the souls of others. He’s a violent and cruel individual who shows no sense of guilt towards the crimes he commits. In Chapter 1 Hyde assaults a young girl, and in Chapter 4 he continuously beat an elderly gentleman to death. There was no motive for the attacks. There is no clear appearance of Mr Hyde as people only see him briefly and then he vanishes into the dark very secretly. 3. To recognise Dr Jekyll was beating up people In the novel we recognise Dr Jekyll who was Mr Hyde in certain situations, had been involved in various incidences involvingShow MoreRelatedThe Strange Case Of Dr. Jekyll And Mr. Hyde1675 Words   |  7 PagesThe Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde Essay Robert Louis Stevenson’s novella, â€Å"The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde,† is a type of Gothic literature. In the beginning of the story when Stevenson is describing the lawyer, one â€Å"Mr. Utterson,† the mood is a bit dull. At first glance the reader may think that this story would be a bit boring and drab. Stevenson’s story is far from being another dull piece of British English literature. The setting and mood of this novella are more complexRead MoreThe Strange Case Of Dr. Jekyll And Mr. Hyde Essay975 Words   |  4 PagesStevenson’s The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde is a novella that follows the basic outline established by Mary Shelley in Frankenstein. However, Stevenson’s monster is not created from body parts but comes from the dark side of the human personality. In both novels, a man conducts a secret experiment that gets out of control. The result of these experiments is the release of a double, or doppelgan ger, which causes damage to their creator. While most people think that The Strange Case of Dr. JekyllRead MoreThe Strange Case Of Dr. Jekyll And Mr. Hyde1440 Words   |  6 Pagescomplexity of human nature in his books, especially in The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, and Kidnapped. The former is about a lawyer named Mr. Utterson seeking out the truth of Dr. Jekyll’s very strange will. He finds out that Jekyll was transforming himself into Mr. Hyde so that he could have the freedom to do whatever he wanted no matter how evil. By the time Utterson finds all this out and findsJekyll, he is too late and Jekyll has already killed himself. The latter is about David BalfourRead MoreThe Strange Case Of Dr. Jekyll And Mr. Hyde1196 Words   |  5 Pageswhich do let control you? The good or evil? This was a question that Dr. Jekyll from the book, The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, could not answer. The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde is a book about a man who cannot control the two sides of himself, causing him to do terrible things and not even be aware of it. The theme of this book is good versus evil. Dr. Jekyll is fighting his evil side, known as Mr. Hyde, throughout the book. Some people believe that the book’s theme hasRead MoreThe Strange Case Of Dr. Jekyll And Mr. Hyde938 Words   |  4 PagesVictorian Hopes and Fears Involving Science as Found in Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde During the Victorian Era there was a great race to use science to alleviate the suffering of the ill, specifically for those patients who were suffering from ailments of the mind. While some of the methods used to diagnose and treat such afflictions would be considered barbaric in nature by today’s standards, they were considered cutting edge medical science during the time of the Victorian Era. It was also consideredRead MoreThe Strange Case Of Dr. Jekyll And Mr. Hyde964 Words   |  4 PagesThe Strange case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, written by Robert Louis Stevenson was published in 1886. The story is published during the Victorian era, the Victorian era was an age of repression, there was no violence, no sexual appetite, and there was no great expression or emotion. In the story, Dr. Jekyll creates a potion that turns him into Mr. Hyde, Mr. Hyde is the complete opposite of what people are in the Victorian era. At first, Dr. Jekyll is in control of Mr. Hyde, but towards t he end MrRead MoreThe Strange Case Of Dr. Jekyll And Mr. Hyde1505 Words   |  7 PagesDuring the latter portion of the nineteenth century, Robert Louis Stevenson published his novella, The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde. The fin de sià ¨cle saw the rise of different thoughts and ideas surrounding science and society. These concepts and interpretations sparked the discourse surrounding the theory of degeneration; which was the concern that civilization would fall to a lower state of being. This chapter will be reading multiplex personality as a manifestation of this broader culturalRead MoreThe Strange Case Of Dr. Jekyll And Mr. Hyde1739 Words   |  7 Pagesnovel â€Å"The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr Hyde† by Robert Louis Stevenson, the novel â€Å"Frankenstein† by Mary Shelley, the short story â€Å"The Monkey’s Paw† by W.W Jacobs and the short story â€Å"Yellow Wallpaper† by Charlotte Perkins Gilman. These four texts convey this theme through the use of gothic conventions such as death, madness and darkness. In the novels The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr Hyde by Robert Louis Stevenson and Frankenstein by Mary Shelley, Frankenstein and Dr. Jekyll are wronglyRead MoreThe Strange Case Of Dr. Jekyll And Mr. Hyde1351 Words   |  6 PagesThe Personas of Henry Jekyll Every person is born with bright and dark personas that people moderate due to the standards of society. In The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, Jekyll and Hyde battle for the power to stay alive in the story. As Jekyll continues to try and take over his evil persona, Hyde tries to stay alive and cause evil in the world. In our society, many people will struggle with self control and Dr. Jekyll has trouble controlling his alter ego by performing his evil pleasuresRead MoreThe Strange Case Of Dr. Jekyll And Mr. Hyde1326 Words   |  6 Pages The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde was published during the late Victorian era, but he clearly brings into question the acceptance of Victorian philosophies, especially the belief that one truth exists and that we can identify good and evil as separate entities. The names Jekyll and Hyde have become synonymous with multiple personality disorder. This novel can be examined from the natural dualism and Freud’s structural th eory of the mind. In The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr

The Fundamental Aims Of The Law Of Contract - 1554 Words

A contract, simply and popularly defined, is an agreement voluntarily entered into by two or more parties who have the intention to create legal relations. It can be said that one of the fundamental aims of the law of contract is to provide a fair framework within which the parties are free to contract. Lord Steyn has, extra-judicially, raised this point: â€Å"A thread runs through our contract law that effect must be given to the reasonable expectations of honest men†¦ Although the hypothetical reasonable man pursues his own commercial self-interest he is by definition not dishonest. The proposition can therefore be re-defined simply to say that the law must respect the reasonable expectations of the contracting parties†. As contracts are characterised by having legal consequences, the law of contract seeks to find a way of interpreting the actions and utterances of the parties in such circumstances. In establishing the legal position in a given contractual dispute, it is a general rule that the courts do not ask what it is that the parties had actually intended. The parties are depersonalised and the courts take an objective approach based on what the parties have perceivably done. The question is often asked of what a person of ordinary sensibilities, ‘the reasonable person’, in the position of the parties would have understood from their dealings and not what they subjectively reckoned. As Lord Hoffmann reasoned in Investors Compensation Scheme Ltd v West BromwichShow MoreRelatedRelations Between China And China1367 Words   |  6 PagesConvention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG), which establishes a system of uniform sale of goods rules to govern the rights and obligations of parties to international sales contracts by taking into account the differing legal systems and different business expectations common in cross-border transactions. Despite the provision of the uniform international sales contract rules, it is still critical, in some situations, to become acquainted with each country’s contract law, for theRead MoreThe Constitution Of The Peoples Republic Of Bangladesh1160 Words   |  5 Pagesgeneral protec tion as a citizen they do not have any specific legal protection for the enforcement of their rights relating to domestic work. Laws regarding Domestic Workers in Bangladesh: The legal and institutional framework for regulating domestic work and protecting the rights of the domestic workers in Bangladesh consists of particular provisions in various laws of the country: the Constitution of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, the Labour Act, 2006,the Domestic Servants’ Registration OrdinanceRead MoreThe Law Of Obligation Is A Private Law1672 Words   |  7 PagesThroughout history, the law of obligation has held such prodigious value in the face of private law. Being the heart of both Contract and Tort law, it is a pervasive phenomenon of our social life. Both Tort and Contract law protect the rights, and ‘that protection cannot be legitimately compromised to achieve the aim of just distributing’ . This proposition may be true in the late 19th century, in the present time, however, the law of obligation has been ‘built on the law of its predecessors, manipulatingRead MoreAdvertising Firm On The Lawful Impact Of The Representations 1352 Words   |  6 PagesThe fundamental reason for this report is give guidance to the advertising firm on the lawful impact of the representations in the brochure. By analyzing a scope of as of late distributed journal articles, magazine articles and websites on the point of contract law this report depicts the principle sorts of agreement and the material expected to shape a lawful contract. A contract can be characterized as an understanding containing guarantees made between two or more parties with the aim of makingRead MoreCase Analysis : Office Supply1339 Words   |  6 Pages1502: Fundamentals of Law Assignment Topic Due Date: Friday, noon, of week 9 Name- Supreet Singh Student ID- 30306815 Lecturer- Nadine Clode Q1. Office Supply brings a claim for breach of contract against CompuHelp. Discuss whether Office Supply and CompuHelp formed an enforceable contract, AND whether Office Supply is likely to win its lawsuit? Ans. In the case of CompuHelp and Office Supply: To discuss whether CompuHelp and Office Supply formed an enforceable contract we haveRead MoreIntroduction Of Business Law Coursework Assignment1717 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction to Business Law Coursework Assignment Question 1 Part 1: In the English system, there are two laws that have a huge and fundamental impact on the English law. These two laws are the most common type of laws that are carried out within the court, either in Crown Court or the Magistrate’s Court. Depending on the seriousness of the damage caused by the breaking the law, not all prosecutions are carried out in the Crown Court. The English Law coincides within two countries of Great BritainRead MoreThe Corporate Veil : Saloman And Beyond1269 Words   |  6 Pages1. Chapter One: The Corporate Veil – Saloman and Beyond 1.1 What is Limited Liability? In any business, there is a fundamental risk of loss or failure. Such failings are induced by a variety of reasons where an individual may not be at fault. As such, likely business men would be reluctant to launch new business ventures due to uncertain success or unpredictable markets. In such a scenario there lays the possibility of losing one s personal property to repay any debts that a failed businessRead MoreCase Study : Business Law And The Federal System Of Government1079 Words   |  5 Pages Unit Name: Business Law Year: 2014 Trimester: 2 Location: VU Sydney Prepared by: Robert Alvarez Unit Code: BLO1105 Unit co-ordinator: Name: Robert Alvarez Location: Footscray Park - Room A339f Contact number: (03) 9919 5147 Contact email: Robert.Alvarez@vu.edu.au Teaching team: name: Carlo Soliman Email: carlo.soliman@vusydney.edu.au Student name: Mohamad AL Masri Student number:Read MoreDefinitions Of Offer, Acceptance, Legal Consideration, Capacity, And Legality Of A Contract1208 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction The purpose of a contract is to enforce the agreement that the parties have prepared and to define their privileges and tasks in accordance with that contract. The legislative should implement a legal contract as it is created, unless there are factors that impede its enforcement. It is the purpose for the declaration to advance the improvement of agreements between proficient gatherings for lawful bases .As a universal statute, contracts by able parties, justifiably prepared, are compellingRead MoreEU Employment Law1698 Words   |  7 Pagesobjective, reliable and comparable date on the respect of fundamental rights in the EU.’ After enforcing the Charter of Fundamental rights as primary law, the national courts have been using the Charter frequently on different cases. The Charter had a great impact upon the nationals Court’s decision on protecting social rights related to employment and labour law. This essay will focus on the development of the Charter within the EU law through different cases. The first part of the essay will be

Competitive Advantage Report of Brazil Free Essays

In this report, I’m going to develop the competitive advantage of Brazil with Michael Porter’s theory. 1. Factor Conditions: Brazil has a great number of natural resources, especially at Amazon Planitia and the south of Brazil. We will write a custom essay sample on Competitive Advantage Report of Brazil or any similar topic only for you Order Now There has fertile soil and enough facilities. In Brazil, labors don’t cost too much, it’s good for a country to prosper in its agriculture, industry and tertiary sector. The skills and average education level of people in Brazil is not so good but not so bad. There are many people with skills and good education in some big cities in Brazil, but the conditions in those small cities are not so good. There is a gap between big cities and small cities. 2. Demand Conditions: Brazil has a large market in its large land. People in big cities like St. Paulo and Rio de Janeiro would prefer sophisticated products, but the degree of consumer sophistication may not be so high in small cities. 3. Suppliers: The major industry of Brazil is agriculture. Brazil is also good in automobile industry, iron and steel industry, petrochemical industry, computer industry, aviation industry and durable consumer goods manufacture. The supporting companies of these industries are easy to be located in the same area. Brazil used to need a lot of oil to be imported, but the percentage of the oil needed to be imported has reduced from 70% to 33%. That is what the government wants. 4. The firm’s strategy and structure as well as rivalry among competitors: Brazil is the most industrial developed country in Latin America. Brazil also has various mature manufactures. It has already gotten plenty of investment from America. Now in Brazil, some privatization issues are faced by department of insurance. The economy of Brazil is growing and there are strong competitions between businesses. Conclusion: Brazil does have some competitive advantage. It bases on the well development of some main cities like St. Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. But if Brazil want to get more competitive advantage, the government must solve the problem of the imbalance between big cities and small cities. How to cite Competitive Advantage Report of Brazil, Papers

Apple’s Design Process

Question: 1.Critically examine and explain how the four design steps adopted by apple is the right way of product design. Support your answer with example wherever necessary? 2.Going by the case, do you think Apple by focusing on a narrow product line, is following a good design strategy. Explain your answer with examples? Answers: 1. Apple is considered as one of the leading companies that maintain uniqueness through it designs. The core values of the Apple are related to their designs (Kumar, Townsend and Vorhies, 2015). According to the ex- CEO of Apple Steve Jobs, quality is always more precious than quantity. Although Apple is one of the most preferred brands among the gadget lovers, people are not much aware of their designing process (Lemley, 2014). Recently in a panel discussion it has been revealed that team of Apple mainly follow four techniques during the manufacturing of any product, those are: i) Pixel perfect mockups ii) 10 to 3 to 1 iii) Paired Design Meetings iv) Pony Meetings (Chuang, Morgan and Robson, 2015). After the discussion regarding the new product, managers rely on their excellent designers for the design. They follow the below mentioned steps: i) Pixel Perfect Mockups: This is the initial stage of designing any product. This stage usually takes lot of time, but this stage is often considered as an important stage as it helps to prevent mistakes. ii) 10 to 3 to 1: This step differs from Apple to the other brands. No other brands will destroy their ten other designs to establish a perfect design (Dooley, 2013). At first, the expert designers creates ten prototypes by using their creativity, among them only three designs is selected by the experts and then they select the one best design among all of them. iii) Paired Design Meetings: Apple always believes in teamwork. They maintain a good communication strategy among the team. While designing any new product Apple often conducts team meetings between the designers and the engineers. They discuss about every small aspects of the design. These meetings often lead to generate many innovative ideas that can be beneficial for the the emerging design. Designers and engineers usually meet twice a week. Concept of these types of meetings has been brought by the CEO of Steve Jobs. iv) Pony Meetings: Designers always keep in touch with the managers and keep them updated about the developments of the product. These types of meetings reduce the risk of future disappointments. Apple has reduced all the unimportant stages of production. This has made their production procedure simpler. They have involves those steps in the designing procedure that are considered as the key steps of production. Although, the production cost is higher in Apple from the other brands due to the, but Apple ensures the quality of the product (Jia et al., 2014). Quality is the basic priority for the Apple. Apple always welcomes the creativity and innovative ideas of their designers. They allow them to put all their creativity to develop a design. Apple brings an innovative concept about production. Management provides enough space to the designers to show their creativity. They have shown that a quality product does not only require a great team but it demands the high level of creativity (Iwaki et al., 2014). Apple has set an example for the other brands that using great creativity and teamwork can bring fame and profits altogether. 2. As mentioned in the previous case study, Apple follows a narrow product line. They deal with a few numbers of products. They do not believe in market research or diversifying the product line. They do not want to become competition for other brands and spread risk within the market. They have complete faith on the quality of their products and their own technologies. Apple is following the designing strategy. The objective of designing strategy is to consolidate the business and the creativity in such a manner that makes the design more than an artistic exercise (Alsyouf, Al-Alami and Saidam, 2015). An exemplary example is the Robert Bynder Design Inc (RBD). According to its creative head Rob Bynder, while they have merged up the designing skills with the business strategy it works as a tool that enhances the growth of the organization. Apple has also used design as their key element of the production. They consider creativity as the major tool of their strength. Designers have be en allowed to show their creativity to establish every single design. As the case study shows that designers are asked to make ten prototypes for a single design. Among those at first three designs are considered as the finalists, later on they choose only the best design for the final manufacturing process. Not every gadget manufacturing company use this process, as it is a very time consuming process and it enhances the cost of the production as well. However, quality is Apples first concern. They have used the creativity of the designers in an effective manner. Management interacts with its team frequently with the designing team but never create any obstacles for them to perform. They encourage the new ideas and provide a platform to the designers where they can show their creativity. They always maintain transparency within the organization. They ensure that designers always discuss about the new developments with the management so the future disappointments can be avoided. It shows that they are focused enough about the development of business as well but creativity is their first preference. They have set an example for all the designers those who want to achieve the goal in the path of creativity; they have shown that success can be achieved through the creativity (Gruber et al., 2015). Although Apple follows its own techniques and strategies and never relies on any market research, Apple is one of the most preferred brands in the market. Apple has complete faith on their designers and they believe their designers possess the capacity to amuse the world. Reference: Alsyouf, I., Al-Alami, A. and Saidam, A., 2015. Implementing product design development methodology for assessing and improving the performance of products.International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM),9(3), pp.225-234. Chuang, F.M., Morgan, R.E. and Robson, M.J., 2015. Customer and competitor insights, new product development competence, and new product creativity: differential, integrative, and substitution effects.Journal of Product Innovation Management,32(2), pp.175-182. Dooley, J., 2013. Steve Jobs' moment of silence. Gruber, M., De Leon, N., George, G. and Thompson, P., 2015. Managing by design.Academy of Management Journal,58(1), pp.1-7. Iwaki, S., Hokamura, K., Ogawa, M., Takehara, Y., Muramatsu, Y., Yamane, T., Hirabayashi, K., Morimoto, Y., Hagisawa, K., Nakahara, K. and Mineno, T., 2014. A design strategy for small molecule-based targeted MRI contrast agents: their application for detection of atherosclerotic plaques.Organic biomolecular chemistry,12(43), pp.8611-8618. Jia, L., Zhao, G., Shi, W., Coombs, N., Gourevich, I., Walker, G.C., Guerin, G., Manners, I. and Winnik, M.A., 2014. A design strategy for the hierarchical fabrication of colloidal hybrid mesostructures.Nature communications,5. Kumar, M., Townsend, J.D. and Vorhies, D.W., 2015. Enhancing consumers' affection for a brand using product design.Journal of Product Innovation Management,32(5), pp.716-730. Lemley, M.A., 2014. A Rational System of Design Patent Remedies.